Introduction
Being a dancer and artist is not an easy path; it plagues one with an ever searching demeanour, one which entrepreneurial drive can lead you on a meandering path forever in search of the next stop to make along the way. In attempting to make that next stop, I feel it necessary to take a reflective look at my artistic journey thus far in order to better plan as opposed to just being taken by the journey. Discovering the MA course at Rhodes University has been the true culmination of my artistic journey, application and acceptance into the program was itself a divinely guided experience. It is indeed a blessing to have the chance to now critically reflect through research and practice. In so doing, I am inspired and motivated to search further and continue on my artistic journey which I know will be both fascinating and fulfilling, as it has been thus far.
In this paper, I wish to review related literature on the appreciation of Bharatanatyam and Indian dance artists of the diaspora. I will also provide a reflective look at traditional practices versus artists who have interrogated and developed new ways of approaching traditional Indian dance practices.
Bharatanatyam as one of the eight classical dance styles of India is a highly technical and structured art form which stems from the temple dancers or devadasis in India who would dance in praise of the Hindu deities. The content of traditional Bharatanatyam has a strong mythological and religious subject matter steeped in storytelling, praise and worship of the deities. In modern times, it is necessary for accessibility of the art to be refined by constant refreshing of the classical styles in order for artists and audiences to find Bharatanatyam relatable and relevant. This indeed has been my personal experience.
My research has helped me uncover that there are many artists plagued with these issues of self-discovery, and discovering them, has helped me gain a more global perspective on developing a contemporary mind set amongst the general fraternity of traditional classical dance styles and their practicing artists. Leela Samson[1], a Bharatanatyam exponent and author from India and a Jewish-Catholic Indian, has interesting views on the classicality versus contemporary in dance. She has extensive work prevalent to this paper which I will refer to, her views on dance as a career below:
You do not merely represent the God or the wind, you become it. Martha Graham famously said, ‘Only if there is just one way to make life vivid for yourself should you embark on such a career.’ It is both tragic and fortunate that a dancer’s instrument is her body – strong yet fragile, arrogant yet emotional, intelligent yet naïve. (Samson, 2014: 7)
As a global leader of Bharatanatyam, Samson’s understanding of a dancer at grassroots level is shown clearly in her work. She has a gentle vigour to her academic work that inadvertently pushes her colleagues to criticize her. She has not been afraid to step away from unwelcoming arts circles as opposed to enduring them just for the benefit of name and fame. As a result she is highly respected by many contemporary and classical dancers all over the world. I appreciate her work as even though she is native Indian, she seems to somewhat understand the contemporary diasporic artist.
Without too much of a personal focus, my research has led me on to a very different train of thought as I had originally intended. What started out as an auto-ethnography has in fact turned out to be a reflective unravelling of an entire body of theoretical knowledge based exactly upon the so-called dilemma I thought I was facing. My “dilemma” revolves around being a South African artist in a multi-cultural society, yet having an Indian arts background, also being a diaspora and how to create sustainable art as such. To South African Indian audiences itself, Bharatanatyam is difficult to relate to. After attempting to morph with my audience needs, I tried choreography in an Indian contemporary and/or Bollywood style, which seemed to be much more in demand for broader audiences. After embarking to India on a governmental scholarship to learn kathak[2] dance, I returned to South Africa, unsatisfied at my attempts to find my roots in what I believed at the time was my motherland. In fact, what I profoundly realised through this experience is that I am in fact South African first, and Indian second. Upon returning from India, disheartened at my fate, yet grateful to be home, I discovered a private theatre college in Port Elizabeth, Stageworld, where I studied a 3 year diploma in acting, performance art and drama. This course changed my views on my art, as I started to understand the theory of acting and the power of telling a story through depth of characterization, and if using dance in between, this should forward the plot. I also found my Guru, Marlene Thomasse-Pieterse.[3] After experimenting during these three years with short production pieces of this combined style of western drama and Indian dance, a niche started to unravel before my feet. Next thing I knew, I was writing, producing and directing my own work and being invited to perform around South Africa, sometimes on my own steam to expose my work, other times being invited for Indian community festivals or events.
Having now been a lecturer at Stageworld and a practicing full-time performer for 5 years, I yearn to push myself further in search for the next step of artistic growth which the MA program has brought about.
I found myself looking harshly at Bharatanatyam, its teachers, its style and its general compass – it seemed to upset me that it has such a strong focus on aesthetics, the artistry in this art form seems encroached with an unspoken veil of “holiness” – this making its core beauty inaccessible to me, as an exponent of this very tradition. I could not gain artistic respect from Bharatanatyam Guru’s, my work was insulted by classicalists and I was being constantly shoved about as Bharatanatyam communities within South Africa could not seem to box or categorize my work. I felt alone, and isolated from my own art form which I spent almost 7 years in training for completion of the Bharatanatyam Diploma[4].
Upon embarking on research to write about the aesthetics of Bharatanatyam for the MA program, is when I discovered the work and writings of diasporic artists.
According to the World Book Dictionary, a diaspora refers to “the scattering of any group; dispersion” (Barnhart & Barnhart (Eds), 1993: 580). Unknowingly, my personal plight has been the very predicament of many other diasporic artists spread geographically all over the world, originating in race by original Indian decent. Most of these artists are in fact well respected, successful, highly talented and influential industry specialists.
Renowned UK based British Indian dancer (kathak) and award-winning choreographer of Bangladeshi decent, Akram Khan in his acclaimed productions Zero Degrees and Desh, deals with the essence of being an Indian diaspora and his experiences of returning to his motherland, India, and how these experiences of his homeland were so foreign to his being, that it caused him immense discomfort and emotional pain. He explores this yearning for belonging through these pieces. Leela Samson refers to the importance of having a contemporary mind-set within the study of a classical art form, viz. Bharatanatyam. Indian dancer, choreographer and revolutionist for contemporary Indian dance, Chandraleka and contemporary Indian dancer and activist Mallika Sarabhai share their accounts on contemporary Indian art in Professor in drama (UCLA), Ketu Katrak’s book, “Contemporary Indian Dance”. Lastly, award winning UK based Indian artist, dancer and choreographer Shobana Jeyasingh, has produced an immense body of contemporary Indian work. These avant guarde practitioners and their works are referenced and referred to in this paper.
I strive to find my own voice and space which stemmed originally from that feeling of isolation, towards a very interesting and thought provoking phenomenon which plagues diasporic Indian artists the world over.
As Leela Samson’s journey has revealed to her, “Every three hundred years, every fifty years, and every decade now, we see a new definition of classical, as we do of contemporary. As they say, ‘tradition is not what it used to be’ (Samson, 2014: 4). This step away from traditional Indian dance has been a natural process and one which chose me, rather than something which I went in search for.
This longing to challenge tradition and push artistic boundaries extends much further than Indian diaspora only; it seems to plague artists globally throughout time. It is most interesting and fascinating to note what Polish theatre director and theorist Jerzy Grotowski (1933-1999) alleges on facing one’s roots through art:
In my work as a producer, I have been tempted to make use of archaic situations sanctified by tradition, situations (within the realms of religion and tradition) which are taboo. I felt a need to confront myself with these values. They fascinated me, filling me with a sense of interior restlessness, while at the same time I was obeying a temptation to blaspheme: I wanted to attack them, go beyond them, and or rather confront them with my own experience which is itself determined by the collective experience of our time. This element of our productions has been variously called “collision with the roots”, “the dialectics of mockery and apotheosis”, or even “religion expressed through blasphemy; love speaking out through hate”. (Grotowski, 1992: 22)
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- Area of Research: Finding a niche
Many of the artists referenced in this paper, have studied a western dance form in addition to one of the classical dance styles of India, viz. contemporary dance or ballet which they have then meshed with their Indian classical dance to create their own signature movement vocabulary which has led them to become well known for that unique niche and style. Royona Mitra, author on contemporary diasporic performer and artist, Akram Khan and his work, references professor and author John Russell Brown below:
Khan’s work is relevant to our times and self-referential. In this, he embodies the philosophy of performance-making as laid down in the Natyashastra which ‘requires performance to be grounded in the lives of performers and their audiences’ and is opposed ‘to any mode of performance laying claim to authenticity or permanent value’. (Brown, cited in Mitra, 2001: 50)
Ironically, this process of creation seemed to have occurred the opposite way for me. I have always strived towards attainment of a niche. I studied acting to combine my Indian dance (as a means to forward the plot – as in musicals) with English dialogue to create a sort of dance-drama that exposes Indian traditions through a modern interpretation of ancient and mythological stories. The productions I scripted, choreographed and produced include:
- Divine Intervention (2012), a modern interpretation of the concept of reincarnation through time which takes a look at the deistical 10 incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
- Devadasi – a dancer’s journey from the temple to the streets (2013)[5], which takes a look at the taboo and unspoken Devadasi tradition which is shrouded in mystery.
- Sri Rama – a historical (2011), a one act play which shares the story of the life of a very well loved Indian deity, and His significance in the celebration of Diwali, the Hindu festival of lights.
- Maya to Moksha – Illusion to Liberation (2011), a one act play.
- Surya (2010) a one act play about the energy of the sun.
- I also compiled a production called Kahlil on Love (2015) based on the work of Lebanese prophet, Kahlil Gibran’s The Prophet.
These renditions served to put ancient concepts into modern understanding whereby the exposition is coupled with a relatable story line that is able to access and capture the attention of older and younger audiences of different cultural backgrounds.
This natural drift towards a cultural approach to works by artists of the diaspora is theorized below by Indian born Professor of English and American Literature and Language at Harvard University, USA, Homi Bhabha:
The borderline work of culture demands an encounter with ‘newness’ that is not part of the continuum of past and present. It creates a sense of the new as an insurgent act of cultural translation. Such art does not merely recall the past as social cause or aesthetic precedent; it renews the past, refiguring it as a contingent ‘in-between’ space, that innovates, and interrupts the performance of the present. The ‘past-present’ becomes part of the necessity, not the nostalgia, of living. (Bhabha, cited in Mitra, 2009: 49)
Chandralekha (1928-2006) describes the evolution of contemporary Indian dance, as the “in-between” space that lies between tradition and modernity; for contemporary artists this potent space of the in-between involves crossing different movement vocabularies, and other boundaries set up by nationality, ethnicity and religion. Chandralekha describes this as a personal “inward journey, a journey constantly relating, refining the reality of the in-between area; to enable tradition to flow free in our contemporary life” (Chandralekha, cited in Katrak, 2014: XVIII).
These views are echoed in my work, and I feel as if this contemporary stream can be the home for many artists who deviate from the traditional classical styles. Mine differs slightly, in that I have not mastered a western dance form, having only taken short learning courses in contemporary dance and ballet at adult level. As such, I do not play with dance styles, but rather with drama concepts and writing which explores multi-disciplinary work always involving Indian dance (my primary genre), with characterization and dialogue written in English, singing, and that it is usually one woman shows, enacted by myself[6].
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- Bharatanatyam socio-historical perspectives: Looking back to look forward
Being a Bharatanatyam exponent, I believe I have learnt the necessary qualities and skills to successfully create my own art. As the late Medha Yodh (1927-2007), student of devadasi Balasaraswati[7] (1918-1984), who was a dancer and dance teacher at UCLA eloquently states “Bharatanatyam is a magnificent tool to centre human beings, to give them an inner sense of being and to teach them focus, poise, discipline and the integration of different arts” (Yodh, cited in Katrak, 2014: XXII). I believe the same to be true for any and all classical dance traditions, in this case though, as Katrak highlights, “Historical contextualization matters to our understanding of Contemporary Indian Dance” (Katrak, 2014: XIX).
Indian art through time has vastly been an oral tradition, with minimal continuous codification since the Natyashastra. [8] As a result the historification of Indian dance has been limited to those lucky enough to find a Guru to learn from.[9] Many of the concepts of Indian dance is unique and without easy reference to say for example, western theatre. Therefore, “Is it appropriate to use an English/Western term for an art movement in India or China or Africa without injury to the sense and sensibility of the location and practitioners of that form?” (Samson, 2014: 3). This has caused a seeming isolation for Indian dance among general western audiences. The accessibility seems limited, the understanding shielded and the connection somewhat indirect, which can be the cause of this isolation. Mallika Sarabhai comments on how she has utilised the Indian language for her contemporary creations:
We are fortunate in India to have an extremely sophisticated alphabet that has been handed down to us. For me as a twenty-first-century feminist woman to take that alphabet like the roots of a tree and to let its branches go where they want and to let the leaves fall where they will is the contemporary for me… We look into our traditions to create contemporary work that cannot be anything but Indian. (Sarabhai, cited in Katrak, 2014: XXII).
Mallika Sarabhai as activist has tackled on stage many sensitive issues plaguing the Indian societies and particularly women in productions such as Devi, Sita’s Daughters and In search of the Goddess. She has received much acclaim and honour in India and the world over, but also much criticism.[10]
- Challenging the aesthetics of Bharatanatyam and traditional Guru systems
“Proficiency and consistency are the hallmarks of great art. Ornamentation and impressionistic dance cannot sustain” (Samson, 2014: 7).
In its essential nature, Bharatanatyam has a strong focus on aesthetics: the 5 piece costume made specifically from an expensive kanjivaram sari[11], intricate hairstyle involving false hair in a long braid, a false hair ring bun, elaborate flowers, and of course the temple jewellery made up of a full set adorning the entire body. The eye, head, neck, hand, arm, body and feet movements are all learnt in isolation before being strung together to create intricate dance passages. These nritta[12] components need first be mastered before expression or navarasas[13] are taught. These emotive states lead to natya[14] dances which tell deistical stories involving characterization.
I believe these extremes in classical aesthetics have their place for very traditional audiences, but for current work which deconstructs, reveals, questions and interrogates, I believe these peripheral ornamentalisms are secondary. These elaborate extras are most times a hindrance physically, as there is nothing natural about false hair, or any costume that takes in excess of two hours to get into. I wish to refer to the Italian neo-classicists in imploring verisimilitude which is drama that is true to life. Can there be a combination between verisimilitude and deistical stories without infringing on realism on the one hand and classicality on the other?
I believe in creating a balance in this regard for contemporary art which can possibly be obtained by making the focus on the work, the story being told and the character’s voice. The character should dictate what he/she should wear. Costume is effective when it adds to the characters relatability as a human being first, and not if it is first and foremost a standard gaudy garment that might or might not reveal nuances of the character’s reality, viz. economic, social or geographical considerations.
Conversely, Professor Ramsay Burt interestingly points out the following in reference to the work of Akram Khan:
‘(It) initiates dialogues between modern Western aesthetic ideologies and Indian cultural traditions, but the very subject of these dialogues and the new kinds of cultural meaning which they have enabled’ (2004: 1)… he engages in this current and global dialogue between modernity and postmodernity, Western performance aesthetics and Indian tradition-bound rhetoric, and most importantly the personal and the political. (Burt, cited in Mitra 2009: 45)
These contrasting realities create much spectrum which I believe healthily challenge a broader goal of unity for the arts. As the Romanticism movement of the English dramatists of the 19th Century did, “they rejected all artistic rules, suggesting that geniuses create their own rules” (Wilson & Goldfarb, 1991: 237). If the aesthetic focus of Bharatanatyam performance is adhered to for cultural and traditional reasons, these views on the challenging of these norms support the beliefs and practices of many contemporary artists. Traditions and cultures are ever evolving as the human mind and spirit ventures towards the unknown for salvation, other than in the past where beliefs were indoctrinated into people and freedom of choice was not something commonly practiced. Samson on the issue from the Indian perspective:
It is simply a question of what your values in art are and what your philosophy is. These and numerous other categorisations based not only on historical periods, but also on religion, caste, sex, political affiliation, gharana[15], bani or style, on the colour of your skin, on whether you hail from the east or west, north or south, are rich or richer, poor or poorer – what else are we doing here but dividing ourselves on one or other of these types? It is the very thing that puts… people under intense pressure. (Samson, 2014: 4-5)
Globally, the aesthetics of Bharatanatyam seem to be in question and the once accepted norm of custom and tradition are being vastly questioned and immensely challenged. This seeking of the contemporary artist to create and develop their own style and medium has contrasted not only with the traditions and cultures but also with the teaching and learning style of classical Indian arts. Being vastly an oral tradition, the Guru has become a central figure in the practice of any classical dance form. Although highly valued in traditional Indian systems of practice, in the Mata-Pita-Guru-Devam[16] model, an unhealthy focus and pressure is placed on these Guru’s to produce a perfectly moulded classical exponent which will carry forth their particular name. This is a system that worked in the past as dancers then in turn passed on the same knowledge to their students which created a lineage system for different schools of Indian dance. For the contemporary minded artist, however, there is not much freedom artistically in this linear system. It has immense value of course, but stepping out of the lineage if chosen by the artist should not be such a taboo action in the eyes of traditionalists anymore. A contemporary artist will never reject their classical training as this always provides a solid foundation from which to create, and this fine line between contemporary artists who wish to venture out, and the respect gained by classicalists for doing so should be faced in order for more contemporary artists to flourish freely. Samson’s opinion on the issue:
On the practical level, dance requires a pretty good memory of abstract material not written down but passed on in the oral tradition, quick responses in learning and performance, an analytical approach to history, customs, rituals, theory, literature and music that are not necessarily taught in any organised fashion but handed down randomly at the will of the teacher, laborious hours of physical practice, an understanding of other art practices which your own form takes sustenance from or grew out of, and an emotional and philosophical centering that is not easily acquired and cannot be taught. Even simply in terms of controlling and using one’s own body skilfully… (Samson, 2014: 6-7)
For this view to come from an India born and based artist, one who has deep roots embedded in pure classical Bharatanatyam highlights the industry’s need to change in this regard. It is ironic, but not surprising that Samson is vastly opposed by many traditionalists in India and has faced much criticism for being a woman with such strong views.
2.1 Burden of Representation
On the opposite end of the scale, there seems to be another reality for diasporic artists to face. When performing, I have come across a general expectation (which sometimes borders on pressure) to perform to non-Indian audiences in a certain manner, one which satisfies the unintentional (somewhat ignorant) aesthetically pleasing expectation of audiences placed on Indian artists, more specifically Bharatanatyam dancers, to showcase themselves as an ornament of sorts. Whenever I perform Bharatanatyam the meaning is not gauged by audiences at all. I am left with audience comments involving aesthetics only, i.e. I love your jewellery. Where did you get it from? Your make-up is so nice. How long did it take you to get dressed? Can I take a picture with you?
It is frustrating to perform a deeply religious, intricate dance to audiences who, no matter how hard they try, cannot relate or access the value of the stories portrayed, the music and mostly the content of the Bharatanatyam language. As a result, this burden of representation somewhat removes the art from the classicality and all is wafted over the head of the audience member who is non-the-wiser. This in turn fuelled me as a diasporic artist to try something new, to change the focus to what would access and gauge the audience’s appreciation as per any and all other types of performances which they would pay their money to witness. Leela Samson passionately comments on this morph from classicality to contemporary and the negativity it might have to encounter:
Is there not a smack of prejudice… when the apex body decides who may be called classical, who contemporary? Because the categories were made at some point, we then become victims of such a list… I can be traditional, classical, neo-classical, modern, contemporary and anything else you wish to categorise me as, depending upon what your own understanding of these terms are, where you are coming from, what is your sanskaara[17], and how much you know about me or my work. I will not be boxed in by a limited estimation of me or my form. (Samson, 2014: 4)
I take this burden of representation as a personal fuel to erase this seemingly shallow perception of Indian dance in general. To remove the unnecessary aesthetics and reveal the real. As a diaspora, my art needs to be first and foremost accessible – as an agent for education, removal of stereotypes and mostly expositionist of the mysticism of the Hindu traditions. As Leela Samson alleges:
We refuse to acknowledge the layered and pluralistic character of people, faiths, their realities and cultural practices. It is this that has caused such untold suffering to people born long after Partition, but who carry wearily the burden of that legacy? (Samson, 2014: 5)
2.2 Fusion or confusion?
Where does fusion fit into all of this? Is fusing Indian art a way of removing these aesthetic ideals? Doesn’t fusion simply create confusion?
A natural starting point for a diasporic dance artist to expose their art has generally seemed to be through a fusion with various native cultures and their dance or art forms. In Port Elizabeth specifically, and South Africa generally, this was certainly the starting point for exposition of Indian arts especially post 1994 (Formal date of abolition of apartheid). Indian artists strove to form a part of the newly politically conceptualized rainbow nation by meshing Indian styles with other South African dance styles. This was a beautiful starting point for the Indian diasporic artist in South Africa.
Similarly, in the UK, Mitra on observation of Khan and his “confusion”, points out the following:
It would be fair to observe that while a contemporary and recurrent trend in… performance is to trace (this) hybrid reality by ‘contemporizing classicism’, not all such endeavours are successful. Commonly termed as ‘fusion’, such experiments reinforce the existence of classicism alongside contemporary systems and often lack deliberation and depth. These primarily formal experiments do not pursue in depth the sociological issues at stake. The result is often superficial, representing a world where different language systems coexist without the potential to penetrate each other. For many, the point of collisions between tradition and postmodernity remain just so. Collisions: never attaining mutual growth and remaining irreconcilable. I propose that for such endeavours to succeed, an intellectual understanding of the corporeal and cerebral embodiment of diaspora must accompany any formalist experimentation… the body for Khan is both the source of narrative and the primary medium of communication that transcends technique. And his expression lies in his artistic articulation of diaspora as not ‘fusion’ but ‘confusion’ – a condition that he deems as empowering, transient, evolving and positively embracing multiplicity. This has little or no traces whatsoever of the pain and nostalgia of diaspora of the past…Khan celebrates… ‘confusion’ and uses it artistically to articulate this ‘self’, instead of lamenting about his hybrid condition. (Mitra, 2009: 47)
The experimental fusion attempts by artists as an initial step towards contemporary art seems to be a temporary phase which cannot provide much depth of creation, unless full works are developed and made through this fusion style by combining and creating new movement languages. But if two dancers are retaining in entirety the essence of their own style and each moving in their own way to one piece of music, this is merely a cut-and-paste aesthetic method which might seemingly show cultural unity, but not much artistic depth or integrity.
- The Indian diasporic artist
Many Indian nationals found it necessary to venture to the west when colonialism in India dwindled opportunities to make a successful living in the mother land. As such, the diaspora spread to areas all over the west where they mostly ventured into various trades. Durban, South Africa, having the second largest population of Indians outside of India, is where Indians were brought down mostly as slaves on the sugarcane farm fields of Natal. This was not without its price on, at the time, untold manifestations for the handful of Indian artists who chose to practise art in the west. In order to deeper understand the diasporic mind, particularly through dance and art; I refer to various academics and authors below.
Author Parm Kaur articulates the tension that took over UK Indian diasporic artist, Shobana Jeyasingh and her artistic vision as she began to rationalize the place for the prescriptive language of Bharatanatyam, and summarizes:
It was impossible for Jeyasingh to use her known language of Bharatanatyam, as she was occupying a different physical, social, political and aesthetic space. I.e. Britain and her position in Britain as a post-colonial subject, within the context of stylistic changes in (the) contemporary dance scene happening around her, as well as her own fascination for the intellectualism of dance (N.D.). (Kaur, cited in Mitra, 2009: 43)
I can deeply relate to this phenomenon. Author and Doctor Alessandra Lopez y Royo observes this growing tension in the practice of many contemporary British Asian dancers and choreographers who, like Jeyasingh, have started to question the role of classicism in their current globalized existences. She claims, thus, that some contemporary diasporic artists are consciously embracing Western models of neoclassicism within their practice after a period of engagement with (and for some alongside) post-modern features of rupture and hybridity in order to look for ways to ‘reclaim their artistic freedom and integrity and actively participate as interlocutors in British dance discourse’ (Lopez y Royo, cited in Mitra, 2009: 43).
Dramaturg Grehan Helen comments that diasporic studies have theorized the in-between identity by putting forward several oppositional models:
Undertaking a journey from their homeland to a place of settlements, diasporic subjects are characterized by heterogeneity, experiencing a lack of identification with one singular space. When the homeland and the host culture are linked painfully by a history of colonialism… diaspora becomes a consequence of postcolonial anxiety. In these cases, the diasporic condition becomes a complex projection of upholding a nationalist identity and an authentic link with the past. Therefore… diaspora was constructed and experienced as a condition of pain, trauma, nostalgia and a yearning for the ‘homeland’. Professor of English Literature, Vijay Mishra sums this up ‘as a particular condition of displacement and disaggregation’ (Grehen, cited in Mitra, 2009: 46).
Author Royona Mitra summarizes opposing diasporic ideals, starting with Professor in dance, Andree Grau who supports the view above in saying that diaspora is not nostalgically but organically linked to ‘home’: ‘Diaspora and home are not separate identities and any line of division between them is artificial and thus permeable’ (2003). In tandem, Stuart Hall theorizes diaspora as a transient body of people, who reject categorization and seek articulation of identity (Rojek, cited in Mitra, 2009: 46). Homi Bhabha conceptualizes the in-betweenness of this hybrid condition to exist in the ‘third space’, which is ‘such a form of liminal or in-between space’, where the ‘cutting edge of translation and negotiation occurs’ (Meredith, cited in Mitra, 2009: 46). Bhabha sees the diaspora occupying this space harbouring dynamism and engendering ‘new possibility’ and conceptualizes the empowered liminality of the third space as ‘the space of intervention emerging in the cultural interstices that introduces creative invention into existence’. This is far from the traumatic and painful construction of the diaspora of the past, as we know it. Grehen acknowledges that this conceptual shift in the experience of diaspora ‘raises a number of important questions about the role of the subject in this process… how is the body marked or inscribed by this journeying and how does the diasporic subject inscribe him/herself within/on the landscapes s/he traverses?’. Placing the lived body at the centre of discourse, Grehen calls upon postmodern notions of embodiment and corporeality as conceptual means to analyse the role subjectivity in the articulation of diaspora (Mitra, 2009: 46).
This in-between space as referred to above is my isolation theorized, and a place where the very crack between societies is my home. I strive to dig deeper into this crack in creation of my niche.
On a more practical level, referring to the choreographic work Zero Degrees by Akram Khan, Mitra comments that by moving the diasporic experience from race (or nation) specific tropes and by working with global artists who are not bound to national or cultural borders, Khan constructs a multiplicity of identities as empowered existences in today’s global world and urges classicists and purists to reject the notions of authenticity and homogeneity and recognize them as obsolete concepts (Mitra, 2009: 47). In this fascinating production, Khan takes these very theories on diaspora and explores them through a captivating story involving intricate contemporary dance moves, dialogue, human-sized life dolls, a dual 3D stage, music and an enchanting unity of action. I was privileged to find this entire production online.
That the production Zero Degrees is on the very topic of diaspora, Mitra once again comments on Akram Khan and Sidi Larbi Cherkaoui (Moroccan diasporic artist and fellow choreographer in this piece) below:
…while diasporic identity may historically have been made to feel absent from the discourse of presence, the very acknowledgement of this absence makes the dancers’ presence a significant aspect of the discourse in both temporal and spatial terms. (RM p 52)
In summary, Katrak comments as follows on the economics, resources and avenues available to the diasporic artist, in a positive light:
Change in geographical location may provide a dancer with access to different movement techniques, to new technologies of light, sound and multimedia facilities, to funding avenues and infrastructure support with the presence or absence of rasikas and sahrdayas (art appreciators with a sympathetic heart…) Relocation plays an influential role in the direction that Contemporary Indian Dancers take to explore contemporary themes like ethnicity, gender and sexuality, the environment, the use of dance as movement therapy for victims of violence, for the representation of social issues such as women’s status and oppression, for the portrayal of political realities in India like communal-based violence, or for dealing with deeply personal matters of sexuality. (Katrak, 2014: XXI)
This is indeed true. That crack wherein diasporic artists fit, seems to be in exact perfection considering what these artists have accomplished. My yearning has brought me here and now that I know my place, there are others like me, and though seemingly alone, we are all, as per the theory above, the same.
- Spirituality and Bharatanatyam
I have a spiritually seeking soul. This seeking has always given me answers, and even though the questions are harder to hear, and the answers bring more questions, I hope to seek for as long as my soul allows. Through performance, this seeking, I believe is vastly sped up. Through playing a character, there is a human lesson to be learnt by stepping into another’s shoes, that may not have occurred had that character not been given to you to learn that exact lesson. I believe strongly in universal laws, and therefore I believe that art is a deeply spiritual practice. To substantiate and corroborate my claim, I reference below, similar viewpoints on the spirit of the dancer.
“Many people have a common perception that dance is merely physical. In fact a dancer who has a true calling, an inherent perception beyond the physicality of her training, evolves to another level of consciousness” (Samson, 2014: 6).
For the contemporary in art to be born out of classical training, especially in a diaspora, I believe that a soul is called, from deep within, to follow, seek, and yearn for a unique form of expression. This calling is indeed an important element for contemporary art to evolve, yet the spirit cannot be boxed or guided, it has its own direction:
Categories are the bane of our existence! They lack a generosity of spirit. They are technical terms that have little to do with people. I do not wish to be called a ‘classical’ dancer if that title turns people away, if the very purpose of the dance is defeated, if it suggests an exclusivity that is not me and if it is not of the people. (Samson, 2014: 3)
The contemporary artist, I believe is a follower of freedom and expression, not seeking to challenge traditions or infringe on cultural norms. It is not that the product made is done so with the sole purpose of upsetting and unsettling classicality, but rather to honour it, by honouring their artistic journey. These yearnings have pushed immense work out of these industry leaders and they are indeed an invaluable stream of east meets west, contemporizing classicality and creating unique works of explorative, identifying work. Is this not what art is for?
Lastly on this topic, Leela Samson on her spiritual understanding of dance, refers to the Rig Veda: [18]
two birds living in the same tree. One…partakes, who tastes and enjoys the fruits of the tree. The other bird… simply watches, contemplates. The (first is)…caught in the web of life, in the varying gait of its joys and sorrows… The dancer is often seen as the (first bird), enmeshed in life, longing for completeness, yearning for something beyond the parameters of the self. I ask myself whether this is so because her art is visually set in the physical realm. During a performance the audience, and perhaps the dancer too, is compelled to ask, ‘Who is the dancer? What is the dance? Can the two be separated?’ On one level, the physical beauty of the dance and the dancer, her technical virtuosity, the grace of her gestures and the brilliance of her apparel, enrapture the viewer. But dance is also emotional, for what is life or art without feelings, and the expression of those feelings? It is a reflection not only of life, but of the culture and aesthetic of a nation, expressed through literature, song, architecture, design, colour and rhythm, as also through a strong sense of individualism. The connection between the individual ego and these elements in nature outside of the self, that are beyond rational assessment – that require perhaps an element of contemplation – has been a challenge to every artist through millennia. I believe that the arts are at one level purely personal, where the ego of the artist is present, as in a painting or in a performance. And yet art has a function in the social sphere and must reflect that at some level. (Samson, 2014: 6)
What more is there to say? I am grateful for these answers of guidance, for surely the higher power, or the spirit within knows what one needs when one needs it, and always provides.
- The creativity in contemporary work
In my opinion, for contemporary to flourish, a key component is for it to be ingeniously creative. Something so unique, that its signature style becomes the artists medium and language, one which renders audiences to become accustomed to not knowing what a new production might entail. This requires immense creativity not only in the movement itself, but certainly in thought, conceptualization, choreography, use of dialogue, multimedia, and definitely extends into music or sound score, props and ingenuity of space, as advocated by Katrak, “In the explosion of creative choreography by Contemporary Indian Dancers in India and the diaspora, artists engage with and transform Indian traditional dance in multiple avenues” (Katrak, 2014: XVIII). Rasa (emotions or expression in Indian dance) is interestingly analysed by Katrak from a contemporary standpoint. In the Natyashastra it remains a
psychological-physical realm of emotion and taste, and within an aesthetic-spiritual realm of transcendence ( when an aesthetic experience reaches its highest level in transporting the performer into an extra-human realm and taking the audience with him/her. In contemporary times, rasa, evoked by the self-reflexivity of contemporary artists includes both emotion and thought; the gaps in-between emotion and thought are filled by raising social awareness in certain choreographies about gender inequality, or challenging stereotypes of sexuality or nation. The artist, via rasa, leads the audience into socially located engagements that no longer only have the goal of transcendence; rather, the affect now translates into accompanying an artist’s portrayal of social ills such as domestic violence or the denial of female sexuality. (Katrak, 2014: XXI)
5.1 Advocating the importance of education in performing arts
If this calibre of creativity is to be cultivated, I believe a strong injection of drama, dance or performance training should be brought into the educational system. To develop a fully articulate artistic mind of such a creative, these classical trainings should begin at a young age which will develop the foundations needed for successful artistic practice after tertiary studies. There is a lot of interest and passion for the arts, but not much training or development at school level age, especially in the more rural areas of South Africa. On education and dance, throughout time, the arts have not really been important in education, generally speaking. Samson comments on this referencing the Indian education systems:
From the time of Gandhi[19], Tagore[20], Aurobindo[21], Vallathol[22], Vishnu Digamber Paluskar[23], Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay[24] and Rukmini Devi[25], each in his or her own way suggested that the new systems of education resulted in the de-prioritisation of the then extant indigenous systems of education – like the tols, the pathshalas, the gurukulams[26], the madrasas[27] and the monasteries in India, as also the variety of systems of transmitting knowledge, skills and technique. I quote Dr Kapila Vatsyayan on the subject:
…To integrate the rich and diverse living traditions of our cultural heritage with formal systems of education is still a dream for many of us. These stalwarts believed that unless there was equity between the creativity of the hand, the intellectual critical discriminating mind and a pulsating heart, a total human being would not be possible. (Samson, 2014: 7)
On a global scale, this is an area of education greatly needing attention. With the recent #feesmustfall debacle in South Africa, there is much upheaval within the youth of our country. Our political situation does not advocate for upgraded education systems and as a result, art always falls to the bottom of the priority list. Having worked in the capacity of research and development towards a formalised dance course at the Nelson Mandela University, under the guidance of current Dean of Arts, Professor Rose Boswell, it was indeed sad and futile to have lost a contract renewal due to there being insufficient funding after the zero fee increase of the institution for the 2017 academic year. All of the research and funding propelled into this project, I hope will not go to waste in my absence. This point highlighting the arts falling to the back of all priority lines.[28]
On another point within education and dance, Samson highlights the challenges faced by the arts fraternity when scholars versus practitioners are in question. The lasting development of intellectualism and performance art at a post-grad tertiary and scholarly level:
At a micro level, the divide between the great practitioners and the scholar/researcher remains a reality, to the detriment of good writing on the arts. The scholar and the practitioner claim to understand the art, but discover its technique and creativity rather differently. And yet both have to experience that slow burn and the relentless rigour that makes the work worthwhile either on stage or in books. The scholar does his research from the confines of a particular socio-political construct. More and more of them can be seen occupying centre stage at seminars of dance worldwide. On the other hand, the creative impulse seems to draw the best performers away from scholarship. The dancer having to explain her art is bad enough! Her having to be the guru and scholar is I think an unnecessary burden on all of us. That the dancer takes herself so seriously in these roles, as perhaps I do, is another matter – and, some would say detrimental to the dance scenario! It throws bad dancers, less-informed scholars and terrible teachers into the fray. (Samson, 2014: 8)
The challenges plaguing our fraternity are indeed macro, and to highlight them, is the start, I believe, to tackling them.
On bringing through an educative purpose via art itself, Mitra refers to the work of Khan, once again in Zero Degrees “…at the heart of Khan’s practice lies not a formalist but a content-driven approach that examines the nuances of diasporic life” (Mitra, 2009: 45). “…tradition and postmodernity can indeed be in creative dialogue in an organic and moving way (Mitra, 2009: 51). “…by not entering the mode of repetition and reproduction, by rejecting categorization of his practice within existent terminology and by accepting the open-endedness of each creative project as new and challenging and vulnerable, Khan’s embodiment of diaspora is in the process of being written, forever shifting, always in transmission (Mitra, 2009: 58-59). This highlighting the ever evolving and challenging nature of attempting social change through art.
- Conclusion
The views of theorists and artists of the Indian diaspora referenced in this paper form a spine from where I now wish to grow my own vertebra. Many interesting ideas have unfolded answering some of my questions, and sometimes creating more questions. This seeming confusion is the very fuel for the diasporic artist wherein a home and niche can be found.
Khan echoes this sentiment:
To bring together… diverse cultures, experiences and voices is a… reflection of what I am today, which is to be in a state of ‘confusion’: where boundaries are broken, languages of origin are left behind instead, individual experiences are pushed forward to create new boundaries (ibid.)…Khan is thus undoubtedly a product of his environment and the work he creates is a clear extension of his multi-layered, lived and learnt experience. (Mitra, 2009: 44)
How do we inculcate change into an indoctrinated art form? How can contemporary art be welcomed by a somewhat dogmatic body of traditions? Why is experimental Indian theatre seemingly taboo, especially when facing social or historically sensitive issues? Embracing change for the sake of artistic continuity seems like a logical progression for now.
Katrak offers her view below:
Traditional Indian dance is the thread that underlies the trajectory of changes; while some artists stay close to traditional idioms changing the externals such as costumes and music, others transform the traditional vocabulary from the inside, along with creatively bringing in other movement styles to make new hybrid work… Playing with tradition is effective for someone who has mastered the form and can innovate, re-conceptualize and choreograph new dance items. (Katrak, 2014: XIX)
Classical dance’s foundation is the through line for a successful diasporic Indian artist and although this taboo experimentation is challenged at times, these very challenges have pushed the diasporic artist to invent something that was not there before. T. Balasaraswati, as quoted by Ketu Katrak on the tradition of Bharatanatyam having so much depth and complexity that it allows a dancer’s “Wings (to) soar to the very skies of freedom… It is freedom through discipline, not freedom from discipline. (Katrak, 2014: XIX)
Distinguishing art is never the answer, for unity comes through the diversity of individualism, especially in previously colonized or modern multi-racial societies. There can be no lines of division amongst artists creating something to preserve classical Indian art while meshing it with their diasporic experience.
Leela Samson on the topic, “While some artists are simply typed as classical, others wish to be seen as contemporary, some declare they are neo-classical and others modern” (Samson, 2014: 3). “What was modern in 1947 was classified as classical in the 1970’s and has metamorphosed into another expression in these past decades. Can a dancer in the present not express in a classical way?” (Samson, 2014: 4). Samson continues below in reference to the Indian sub-continent:
While we celebrate our diversity, how does democracy deal with issues of difference? Is it not the same in the social, multi-lingual and multi-religious fabric of our nation as it is in the arts – that are perfect symbols of these varied cultures? Secularism rejects inequalities and celebrates diversity… Sadanand Menon questions the use of the term ‘tradition’. He says ‘tradition’ is a non-religious category in the Indian lexicon and gained currency only in the context of the Indian freedom struggle at the turn of the nineteenth century, when clichéd binaries like tradition versus modernity, change versus continuity, unity versus diversity, etc., came into play. (Samson, 2014: 4-5)
Although this view is of India itself, there is a through-line for me as an Indian diasporic artist in South Africa. Superficially, the obvious unifying factor is the Indian-ness, besides the diasporic issue, taking a deeper look; the unifying factor might simply be that we are all human and therefore more similar than we think.
Mitra’s views in reference to Khan, “That his presence in British contemporary dance has significantly challenged pre-existent frameworks and subsequently demanded the acknowledgement of a new identity for the genre is now an undeniable reality” (Mitra, 2009: 59).
As Heraclitus famously said, “Change is the only constant.” For change, artists need bravery, profound skill in their chosen art form and a spirit that seeks to revolutionize their art. If these factors serve as the fuel to create, then overcoming the challenges faced by challenging traditions and norms will be a peripheral bonus achieved from creating work. We face further obstacles in art when social, political and structural ideals clash with the upliftment, respect and belief in art having capabilities to infuse positivity and growth on society, starting with the youth. In an ever-plagued world, our soul needs impression, whether through a creative art form, or simply a creatively stimulated imagination. With more creativity amongst our society, creative leaders can plague immense social change.
- Bibliography
Bhabha, H. (1994). The location of culture. London: Routledge.
Brown, J. (2001). Voices of reform in South Asian theatre. New theatre quarterly, 17(1), 45-53.
Chandralekha. (1984). Reflections on new directions in indian dance. National centre for the performing arts (NCPA) quarterly journal, XIII(2), 60-64.
Grotowski, J. (1992). Towards a poor theatre. London: Michelin House.
Katrak, K. (2014). Contemporary indian dance: New creative choreography in India and the diaspora. USA: Palgrave MacMillan.
Mitra, R. (2009). Dancing embodiment, theorizing space: Exploring the ‘third space’ in Akram Khan’s Zero Degrees. In A. Lepecki & J. Joy (Eds), Planes of composition: Dance, theory, and the global (pp. 40-63). Calcutta: Seagull Books.
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- Samson was Director of Kalakshetra (2005-2012), Indian arts academy founded by Rukmini Devi Arundale in 1936. Samson was also the Chairperson of the Central Board of Film Certification in 2011. She subsequently resigned from both these roles. ↑
- Another one of the eight classical dance styles of India, stemming from North India. ↑
- Thomasse-Pieterse is Principal and owner of Stageworld. ↑
- This was done through Geetanjali Academy of Arts in Port Elizabeth. There was an affiliation to Vadhini School of Dance in Cape Town founded by Savitri Naidoo who opened this sister school in Port Elizabeth in 1987. ↑
- I subsequently wrote two more plays in the Devadasi (2013) series, viz. Devadasi – The Prequel (2014) and A Devadasi in Love? (2017). These three plays tell different stories from the life of one particular devadasi named “Deva” in a modern interpretation. ↑
- Divine Intervention (2012) is the only production of mine thus far which included other performers. It was a fusion piece combining ballet and Bharatanatyam. It wasn’t directly intentional that most of my works are one-hander’s, it just seems easier and most affordable to work this way at this stage in my career. ↑
- Original temple dancer. ↑
- Treatise on dance by Bharata Muni dated to between 200BCE and 200CE. ↑
- More on this in Section 2 of this paper. ↑
- Sarabhai as received the Padma Bhushan award which is the 3rd highest civilian award in the Republic of India. She holds a Doctorate in Organisational Behaviour and played the role of “Draupadi” in Peter Brooke’s Mahabarata amongst many other television, stage and film productions. She is also a politician. ↑
- Elaborate pure mulberry silk sarees with thick borders and brightly coloured. ↑
- Pure dance. ↑
- Nine emotive states of Bharatanatyam include: shringara (love/beauty), hasya (laughter), karuna (sorrow), roudra (anger), veera (heroism/courage), bhayanaka (fear), bhibatsya (disgust), adbhuta (surprise/wonder), shanta (peace). ↑
- Interpretive dance. ↑
- Gharana refers to where a dance style comes from, ie. Kathak dance has different gharanas based on geography, ie. Lucknow gharana, Jaipur gharana and Benares gharana. ↑
- A Hindu concept where above oneself in hierarchy is ones parents, then the Guru, then God. The Guru is even higher in respect and adoration than ones parents. ↑
- Sacraments ↑
- Once of the four sacred canonical texts of Hinduism known as the Vedas. ↑
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, known as Mahatma Gandhi (born in 1869) was leader of the Indian independence movement against British rule, a lawyer and revolutionist until he was assassinated in 1948. ↑
- Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) first non-European to win a Nobel Prize for literature, author, composer of Indian National Anthem Jana Gana Mana. ↑
- (1872-1950) Hindu philosopher. ↑
- (1878-1958) South Indian poet. ↑
- (1872-1931) Hindustani musician. ↑
- (1903-1988) Indian social reformer and freedom fighter. ↑
- (1904-1986) Bharatanatyam dancer, choreographer and founder of Kalakshetra, the first formalised school of Bharatanatyam since the devadasis in India. ↑
- Type of residential schooling system In India where the student resides with the Guru. ↑
- Arabic school. ↑
- The irony lies in that alleged millions of rands was then spent to change the name of the institution from Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University to Nelson Mandela University, coupled with a complete re-branding of the institution. All this during a time of national turmoil within the tertiary education sector. ↑